Prefixes and Suffixes

The English tongue has many prefixes and suffixes many of which can be easily taken out, since their meanings are already found in  ones. Thus, we can many of the inlandish prefixes and suffixes for. Other inlandish affixes are put here as well for historical interest.

after
After- oversets Latin post.


 * 1) postscript - afterword
 * 2) post-Victorian - after-Victorian

all
All- oversets Latin omni.


 * 1) omniscient - all-knowing
 * 2) omnipotent - almighty

be
Be- covers a wide range of meanings, having come from an unstressed form of the Old English preposition bī (by). The meanings of be- are:


 * 1) Betokens around, all about, e.g., bespatter, bestrew.
 * 2) Betokens thoroughly, soundly, essentially used as an intensive, e.g., bedazzle, bewilder, begrudge.
 * 3) Betokens off, away, e.g., behead, bereave.
 * 4) Makes intransitive verbs expressing some kind of prepositional relation transitive, e.g., bemoan, bespeak.
 * 5) Forms verbs from nouns and adjectives with the meaning of making the object have that quality, e.g., belittle, befoul, befriend, besot, beclown.
 * 6) Means affected by something, e.g., becloud, befog, bedew, bedevil, bewitch.
 * 7) Means covered or furnished with something with adjectives ending in ed, e.g., bejewelled, beribboned, bespectacled.

by
By- means the same thing as the preposition and the adverb, but it also has the meaning of secondary, e.g., byproduct, byform.

down
Down- means the same thing as the preposition and the adverb; it mainly shows a lowering in position, be it literal or figurative, e.g., downstream, downturn.

fore
Fore- oversets Latin pre and ante. In many cases, the spelling has been mixed up because of the unrelated prefix for-, but it ought to be spelled fore when brooked with the meaning of before.


 * 1) predict - foretell
 * 2) preface - foreword
 * 3) precede - forego
 * 4) pre-Victorian - fore-Victorian
 * 5) anteroom - foreroom

half
Half- oversets Latin semi and demi, and Greek hemi.


 * 1) demigod - halfgod
 * 2) semicircle - halfcircle
 * 3) hemisphere - halftrendle (trendle is an Old English word for sphere)

When used with words for familial relations like brother, the prefix shows that the person mentioned is related only through one parent. Thus, someone who has a half-brother only has one parent in common with him.

Half- also can be used to show incompleteness, e.g., half-baked, half-done.

in
In-, as one can see, means in, into. Some words with this prefix are insight, input, and ingrown. Note that the prefix in- as in inseparable is from Latin and means something else wholly. There is also a Latin prefix in- that means the same thing as English in, e.g., invade.

mid
Mid- means the middle of or in the middle and can be brooked to make words such as midway, midseason, and midsection.

Note that in the word midwife, the mid is not from the usual word mid but from the obsolete preposition mid, which denotes association.

mis
Mis- has a negative meaning to show badness (factual or moral), e.g., misunderstand, misspeak, mistake. Some of the words in truth come from French, the prefix being from Old French mes (e.g., misadventure), but the prefix had the same meaning and almost the same form as mis- and so easily became one with it. Mis- can be brooked to overset Latin mal.


 * 1) malfunction - miswork(ing)
 * 2) malpractice - misdoing

off
Off- means away from. It is found in a few words, e.g., offspring, offshore, offhand.

on
On- has the same meaning as the preposition and adverb, e.g., onset, oncoming, onslaught.

out
Out- means out, outwards, and some words with this prefix are outland, outbound, and outcast. It can also mean exceeding, surpassing, e.g., outwit, outdo.

over
Over- oversets Latin super and has the following meanings:


 * 1) Means above, e.g., overhang, overshadow, oversee.
 * 2) Shows, e.g., overman (oversetting of German Übermensch).
 * 3) Shows, e.g., overdo, overambitious.
 * 4) Means utterly, e.g., overjoyed, overawe.

un (negation)
Un- oversets Latin non and in (as in inaccurate) and Greek a(n) (as in asymmetry), and has the following meanings:


 * 1) (for nouns and adjectives) shows the lack of a thing or a, e.g., unrest, uncertain.
 * 2) (for nouns) shows bad whichness, e.g., unluck, unrede (whence the nickname Æthelred the Unready).

un (reversal)
Un- has the following meanings:


 * 1) (for verbs) shows, e.g., undo, untie.
 * 2) (for verbs) shows, e.g., unmask, uncage.

Note that un- used for negation came from Old English un-, whereas this un came from Old English on- (an unstressed variant of the Old English prefix and-). Because of the strong fellowship between the concepts of negation and reversal, it is no surprise that the two prefixes have more or less become phonetically confused with each other.

under
Under- oversets Latin sub.


 * 1) subordinate - underling
 * 2) subterranean - underground
 * 3) subaqueous - underwater
 * 4) sublingua - undertongue

up
Up- means the same thing as the preposition and the adverb, and it can be brooked literally or figuratively, e.g., upriver, upturn, uprising, uphold, upset.

dom
-dom is an ending that shows state. It was once a selfstanding word meaning judgment, but became productive as a suffix in the Old English. The selfstanding word now lives on as doom (the noun from which deem comes). -dom has the following meanings:


 * 1) Shows condition or state, e.g., freedom, boredom.
 * 2) Shows rank or office, e.g., earldom, stardom.
 * 3) Shows jurisdiction or domain, e.g., kingdom, Christendom.

-dom is used with a few adjectives, e.g., freedom, wisdom (wise-dom), Christendom, halidom (holy-dom).

ed (past tense and participle)
-ed is the past tense and past participle ending for regular verbs. The ending was once fully, so asked was once outspoken as ask-id. Naturally, the ending became shortened, whence the three ways to outspeak it:


 * 1) If the last consonant is a t or a d, it is outspoken fully, e.g., wanted, ended.
 * 2) Otherwise, after an unvoiced consonant, it is outspoken as t, e.g., asked (askt), washed (washt).
 * 3) Otherwise, after a voiced consonant, it is outspoken as d, e.g., wronged (wrongd), learned (learnd).

Formerly, the regular past tense forms were written phonetically, e.g., stept for stepped, speld for spelled. For past tense forms in which the vowel is shortened, the phonetic spelling is generally used, e.g., wept, crept, kept (but meant and dreamt do not follow this convention).

Some verbs have irregular past tense forms that use -t where -d is expected, e.g., smelt, dwelt, burnt, spoilt, learnt. These are far commoner in British English than in American English.

In some past participle adjectives, the ending is outspoken fully, e.g., wicked, crooked, wretched. Sometimes, in poetry or modern editions thereof, for past tense and participle forms not spoken the usual way, the full outspeech is betokened by a grave accent, e.g., lovèd. touchèd.

ed (adjective)
-ed is put at the end of nouns to make adjectives that show the having of what the noun denotes, e.g., horned, brown-haired. It is somewhat like the past participle ending -ed, but their Proto-Germanic forebears are thought to be not the same, though rather alike in form.

Of course, though having only one spelling, the ending in truth has three forms, and the forms match those of the regular past tense and past participle ending:

en (past participle)
-en is the past participle ending for a few but important irregular verbs, e.g., be - been, speak - spoken, eat - eaten. There are a few verbs that once had this ending, but whatever the reason may be, they have died out, e.g., come - comen, hold - holden, sing - sungen. Some obsolete past participle forms have become adjectives that keep their verbs' meaning, e.g., drunken, sunken, shrunken. A few past participle adjectives have meanings no longer found in their verbs, e.g., beholden, sodden.

en (adjective)
-en is an adjectival ending with two meanings:


 * 1) To be made up of
 * 2) To pertain to

are golden, wooden, ashen, brazen, and elven. Though there is a tendency now to drop the ending, it is still often brooked, be it in its literal or its figurative meaning.

en (verb)
-en is a verbal ending that can be put at the end of adjectives or nouns. Roughly, the meaning is to make something have a certain, e.g., whiten means to make something white, strengthen means to give something strength. It can be brooked to overset Latin -ify and Greek -ize.

er (comparison)
-er is the comparative suffix for adjectives and adverbs, e.g., high - higher, great - greater, early - earlier. Unlike and German, the comparative ending is generally brooked for one-syllable words and a few two-syllable ones only; many adjectives and adverbs generally brook the more form instead, e.g., more ridiculous, more ancient. In the English tongue's older stages, there was no such limitation.

er (agent)
-er is the standard agent suffix brooked for words showing a deed's doer, e.g., reader, farmer. It is also brooked to show association with a group or a certain quality, e.g., foreigner, New Yorker. This Germanic suffix is believed to have a connection with the Latin -ārius. Even with the Latin connection, however, it has no connection to the homophonous suffix or (as in activator), which comes from Latin -tor.

In a few words, because of phonological changes, the suffix ended up becoming -yer instead, e.g., bowyer, sawyer, lawyer. Also, the suffix once had a feminine equivalent in -ster, but over time, -ster lost its feminine meaning (see -ster below for more).

ern
A suffix that appears only in words for directions, i.e., northern, southern, western, eastern.

est
The superlative suffix for adjectives and adverbs, e.g., high - highest, soon - soonest. The same tendencies for the -er suffix's brooking apply for this one as well; that is, many adjectives and adverbs generally brook the most form instead, e.g., most enjoyable, most troublesome.

fold
An adjectival and adverbial suffix that is brooked with numbers to show multiplication. For, twofold betokens that the amount is now twice as much, and so a twofold rise means that the amount has been doubled.

The suffix is also brooked to show a certain number of. For byspel, in my reasoning is twofold, it means that the reasoning comes in two deals.

ful
An adjectival suffix that shows that something is "full" of a certain quality, e.g., sorrowful, shameful. It is also brooked with verbs to show tendency, e.g., forgetful, watchful.

When brooked with some nouns, it may have a secondary meaning of showing amount, and the resulting word is a noun, e.g., handful, bucketful.

hood
-hood is another ending that shows state. It was once a selfstanding word, and in Old English, it meant condition among a bunch of other meanings. The selfstanding word, however, has died out and would have become hode under normal sound changes. -hood has the following meanings:
 * 1) Shows status, e.g., childhood, parenthood.
 * 2) Shows a group or collection, e.g., brotherhood, monkhood.

The suffix is generally added to nouns, but in some cases, it is gotten from adjectives, e.g., falsehood, likelihood, hardihood. Note that the word livelihood appears to be of this formation, but it is truly an alteration of the obsolete word lifelode (literally course of life and later meant means of keeping alive). The word's form was changed from association with lively and -hood.

ing
Note that a nonstandard pronunciation of this is written as -in ' , as if the g had been dropped (but phonetically speaking, there is no g in ing). This pronunciation is used oftener for present participles than for verbal nouns.

The -in pronunciation has been for some time, even if the spelling has not always reflected it; in a few classical rhymes, -ing is shown to have been pronounced as -in. However, some texts from 18th-century writers in regard to pronunciation suggest that the -ing pronunciation was used as well; Johnston, one such writer, noted that the g is "quiescent in the termination ing as in reading, writing, etc., which also may be sounded", and Walker, another writer, noted that "our best speakers do not invariably pronounce the participial ing, so as to rhyme with sing, king, and ring". In any case, the -in pronunciation was definitely widespread among speakers.

The lessening of prestige of -in '  was apparently facilitated by the middle class, and so the -in pronunciation became a marker of both lower-class and upper-class speech. In literature, it was common to use the form -in '  in uneducated speakers' dialogue. Moreover, there was a tendency in which ng was substituted for n in some words by aspiring lower-class speakers who end up making hypercorrections, e.g., ruing (for ruin), ribbing (for ribbon), linning (for linen), garding (for garden). This stereotypical tendency, however exaggerated it may have been by writers, nonetheless betokened that -ing had begun to be seen as the only proper form.

As for the upper class, the -in pronunciation was used freely in the 19th century (albeit not without censure by critics), but by the 1920s, it had become unfashionable, and in upper-class speech, it was then seen as silly, affected, or old-fashioned. The expression huntin ', shootin ' , and fishin '  is a derisive example of upper-class speech.

ing (present participle)
-ing is the present participle ending. Like the past participle, the present participle is the root of a few adjectives, e.g., exciting, interesting, charming.

Originally, it was the ending for the verbal noun, e.g., a small building. However, it later ousted -ende, the true present participle ending, in its role (see -and below), the result of which was that the verbal noun and the present participle now have the same ending. The cause of this appears to have been a phonetic confusion between -ing and -inde, a Southern variant of the present participle.

ing (verbal noun)
-ing is the ending for the verbal noun, e.g., a good painting, a grisly killing. The verbal noun betokens a few different concepts:


 * 1) An instance of a deed, e.g., The fighting must stop.
 * 2) Material related to a certain thing or deed, e.g., I need more piping.
 * 3) Something that does a certain deed, e.g., Let me get you a covering.
 * 4) The result of a deed, e.g., That is a very dear painting.

Note that in phrases like go fishing and go hunting, the -ing words are not present participles but verbal nouns. Historically, these phrases were truly go a-fishing and go a-hunting, where the a- is a reduced form of the preposition on (meaning in); therefore, go a-fishing means go in fishing. The a- was later dropped, which makes the verbal noun look as if it were truly a present participle instead.

In archaic phrases like the house is building, in which passivity is expressed, it looks as if the -ing word were an active present participle used in a passive sense. This, however, is truly a reduction from the original phrase the house is a-building, in which the a- was later dropped.

Remarkably, the verbal noun is used as a gerund, e.g., I enjoy writing letters, Not doing anything is not an option, in which the verbal noun is essentially equivalent to the infinitive in meaning, but not necessarily in syntactical use. The gerund was unknown to Old English and early Middle English; it arose around the latter half of the Middle English period.

ish
-ish can be brooked to overset Latin -ian, -ic, and -ese. For :
 * 1) Icelandic - Icelandish ( it with outlandish)
 * 2) Arabic - Arabish
 * 3) Egyptian - Egyptish
 * 4) Japanese - Japannish
 * 5) gigantic - ettinish (ettin is an Old English word for giant)

This works for the adjective only. To overset Egyptian in its noun meaning (when the word talks about men), however, we can say Egyptishman, as we do for English and Irish.

In speech, -ish is also brooked to show approximation, e.g., yellowish, sixish.

less
An adjectival suffix that shows the lack of something, e.g., penniless, shameless. Notwithstanding what the form may suggest, it has nothing to do with the adjective and the adverb less. Instead, it is gotten from an Old English adjective that had the meaning of devoid of; the adjective itself became lease, which is now and has only the meaning of untrue, false, lying.

like
A suffix that has the same meaning as its base word; that is, it shows resemblance and similarity to something. For, a childlike voice means that the voice is like a child's voice.

ling
A diminutive suffix. Originally, it was simply a nominal suffix not betokening diminutiveness. In irþling (earthling), it meant plowman, and in dēorling (darling), it meant someone who is dear. The suffix might have some diminutive force, as seen in stærling (starling, the diminutive of the Old English word stær, not star, from Old English steorra), but only later on did its diminutive meaning become its main one (which rise is generally thought to be of Old Norse influence).

ly (adjectival)
An adjectival ending to show that the adjective has qualities that the noun to which it is has, e.g., kingly, brotherly. It is also brooked to show quantity of time, e.g., daily, yearly.

ly (adverbial)
The ending generally brooked to form adverbs from adjectives, e.g., happy - happily, quick - quickly.

Both -ly endings are gotten from a Proto-Germanic word that meant body (and thus betokened likeness and thence manner). The word today in English is lich, which means dead body, corpse. In Old English, the adjectival -ly was -līċ, and the adverbial -ly was -līċe, the lone e at the end being an adverbial ending. Because of phonological changes, however, by Shakespeare's time, the two had become alike in form.

ness
-ness is an ending used to turn adjectives into nouns. Many times, it can be used instead of outlandish endings, though the words with which -ness is brooked are still outlandish.


 * 1) clarity - clearness
 * 2) festivity - festiveness

This ending is the usual ending to form nouns expressing state or condition; other endings like -dom, -hood, and -ship formerly had this function as well, but they are now seldom used thus.

s (third-person singular)
-s is the third-person singular present indicative suffix. It was originally a form that came from one of the Old English dialects; the West Saxon ending was -aþ, which later became -eth. Sometime in the Early New English tide, however, -s had begun to spread to other dialects and soon was brooked alongside -eth; often, the difference between the two had something to do with poetic meter or formality. Eventually, -s replaced -eth fully.

s (plural)
-s is the plural ending for nouns, though there are a few exceptions, e.g., oxen, mice. It was originally only one of the sundry plural endings in Old English, as it belonged to a certain class of nouns. Over time, however, it became brooked for nouns in general and so replaced -en in many nouns wherein it is the older form.

s (genitive)
-s is the genitive case ending for all nouns and is now written as 's. Originally, however, not all nouns had -s as their genitive ending; for, lady in Middle English had lost its original genitive ending because of sound changes and so had a genitive form that looked the same as the nominative. Though the genitive singular is now lady's, the old genitive form is preserved in Lady Day (literally lady's day).

Moreover, there are a few but important adverbs that have the genitive ending, e.g., nowadays, always, sometimes, once. This is the adverbial genitive, but it is not so obvious to speakers nowadays that these are genitives. In the sentence I work days and nights, historically speaking, days and nights are not plural forms but genitives.

In some words like against and amidst, the s is the adverbial genitive ending, but the t is a needless addition.

ship
-ship is another ending that shows state. It is akin to the word shape and has the following meanings:
 * 1) Shows condition, e.g., friendship.
 * 2) Shows rank or office, e.g., ambassadorship, kingship.
 * 3) Shows a group, e.g., membership, readership.

The suffix is generally added to nouns, but it is attached to adjectives in hardship and worship (truly worth-ship).

some (characterization)
A suffix that shows that something is characterized by a certain thing or quality. For, burdensome means leading to burden and thus difficult, taxing. And wholesome means productive of wholeness (that is, good health and soundness). It can be brooked to overset the ending -ous.

some (group)
A suffix that betokens a group of a certain number, e.g., twosome means group of two, duo, pair. It is truly the same word as the adjective and pronoun some; in Old English, some was often brooked after a genitive plural, e.g., sixa sum means one of six. However, as the genitive plural's inflections became lost, the true meaning of some became lost as well, and so the word was seen as a suffix instead.

The suffix is handy to brook outlandish words referring to groups. For byspel, threesome can be brooked for trio, triad.

ster
A suffix that nowadays shows association, e.g., youngster, gangster. It is essentially a synonym of -er.

Historically, it was the feminine equivalent of -er. For, in Old English, the feminine of bæcere (baker) was bæcestre (which later became the surname Baxter). Other words include songster, brewster, and webster. Not long after the Old English, however, -ster soon began to lose its feminine meaning, and soon, words ending in -ster became for men as well.

The only remnant of the original meaning is the word spinster, which is benoted only for women, but no longer means she who spins; the meaning of unwed woman came from the historical fact that unwed women often spun thread for their livelihoods.

Interestingly, still benotes -ster in its feminine meaning, but German has lost it wholly; to overset she who leads, Netherlandish benotes leidster, but German benotes Leiterin (see en (feminine) below for more).

th
The suffix for ordinal numbers that are greater than three, e.g., fourth, fifth. Of course, numbers that have one, two, or three in their name brook their ordinal forms instead, e.g., twenty-first, fifty-second, eighty-third. The suffix is also brooked for the number zero (i.e., zeroth). As it is the default suffix for ordinal numbers, it is also often brooked in mathematics for variables, e.g., nth.

With numbers ending in y such as twenty and fifty, the suffix becomes -eth; thus, the ordinal versions thereof are twentieth and fiftieth.

ward(s)
A suffix that specifies direction, e.g., forward (more accurately spelled foreward), backward. It has two forms: -ward and -wards.

The difference between the two is only etymological: originally, in Old English, -ward simply formed adjectives, whereas -wards was the genitive form. Because the genitive could be brooked to form adverbs, -wards was the adverbial of adjectives ending in -ward. Of course, even early on, words ending in -ward could be used as adverbial accusatives as well. There are still a few tendencies sundering the two forms, however:


 * 1) Nouns do not brook -wards, e.g., to the northward.
 * 2) Adjectives do not end in -wards, e.g., a backward land.

In other words, the two forms are fully interchangeable for adverbs, but apparently, in British English, adverbs tend to -wards only.

ways
A suffix that shows direction or manner, e.g., sideways, lengthways. It has the same meaning as the suffix -wise (see below), but -wise is much commoner than ways except in a few words like sideways and always (which has a temporal meaning). The suffix -ways is simply the genitive of way brooked adverbially.

wise
A suffix that shows direction or manner, e.g., clockwise, stepwise. It comes from the old noun wise, which means way, manner. In informal speech, it is to brook -wise to mean with regard to, e.g., weather-wise, things look rather good.

worthy
A suffix that has roughly the same meaning as the base word. It is brooked to show:


 * 1) Fitness and safety, e.g., seaworthy, roadworthy.
 * 2) Deservingness, e.g., newsworthy, trustworthy.

y
A suffix that shows quality or tendency, e.g., healthy, cloudy, sticky. Note that this is an adjectival suffix; it has nothing to do with the nominal suffix -y in honesty and modesty, in which words the -y is from Latin -ia.

a (in)
A- is an unstressed form of Old English an. It means on, in, to and thus is found in a few adverbs denoted state or manner, e.g., aside, asleep, afire, aloud. It is occasionally found in words like a-hunting and a-fishing, wherein the -ing is the suffix for the verbal noun.

a (of)
A- is from an unstressed form of Old English of (which itself was an unstressed variant of off). It means of, e.g., anew, athirst, afresh.

a (perfective)
A- is a reduced form of the prefix ge-, which was commonly to show completion and thus was benoted for past participles (see y- below for more). It is found in words like aware and alike, in which words all meaning of the prefix is now lost.

a (motion)
A- is from Old English ā-, and it was originally an unstressed form of the prefix or- (which originally meant out, see below). It betokened motion from a position, and later on, because the derivative words and their root words had roughly the same meaning, the prefix was then thought to show a vague level of intensity, or thought to be simply a stylistic variant, e.g., arise, awake, amaze.

aller
Aller- came from the plural genitive of all and thus means of all. It soon was brooked with the superlative of adjectives to mean very, e.g., allerbest literally means best of all and thus very best. By Shakespeare's time, it had long been obsolete, and only one remnant had lived on in alderliefest (very beloved), wherein aller- had gotten an intrusive d (like the unrelated noun alder). Other Germanic tongues benote their cognates of aller- likewise.

for
For- is a prefix that is found in a few common English words, but it is no longer productive, and the exact meaning is no longer remembered. As a verbal prefix, it has the following meanings:


 * 1) That an action is done with an adverse effect, e.g., forbid, forsake, forgo.
 * 2) Intensity or completion of the action, e.g., forgive, forgather.

It is often mixed up in spelling with the prefix fore-.

gain
Gain- is an archaic prefix that means against and can be brooked to mean Latin counter, contra and Greek anti. The only word with this prefix now is gainsay, which is literally say against.

or
Or- is an obsolete prefix that originally meant out and later on came to mean without. It is akin to German ur-, which is used to mean proto-, so or- can be likewise. The prefix is now found only in the word ordeal (that is, that which is dealt out by the gods, and thus judgment, and the word was brooked for trials of physical test in the Old English tide, whence the current meaning of painful experience).

sam
Sam- was a prefix that meant half. It is now found only in sandblind, a change of samblind that came from the association of sand and weak eyesight. It is also the first half of Samwise, the name of a character of J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings.

sen
Sen- means very and thus greatens the word it modifies. In Old English, as sin-, it mainly meant ever, everlasting, but seemed to also mean very, immensely. The only word that still has this prefix is sengreen.

thri
Thri- is a prefix that means three and can be brooked to overset Latin tri. The prefix can be found only in the obscure word thrifallow (to plow for the third time before sowing).

to (separation)
To- is an obsolete prefix that betokened separation or intensive force. By Early New English, the prefix had died out, but was preserved in the verb tobreak, as seen in the King James Bible passage "And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon Abimelech's head, and all tobrake his skull." (Judges 9:53). Note that all in the passage is adverbial, and the to is not the same as the preposition and the infinitive sign to.

to (position)
To- is the same as the preposition to, which also meant at in Old English. Hence, today, tonight, and tomorrow truly mean on this day, on this night, and on the morrow, respectively.

twi
Twi- is a prefix that means two and can be brooked to overset Latin bi, duo and Greek duo. The suffix now little known, the most well-known word in which this prefix lives is twilight, though the meaning of twi- here is unclear. A word in which the meaning of twi- is apparent is twibill, which refers to an ax with two blades.

wan
Wan- was a prefix that showed a lack of something. Old words with this prefix include wanhope (despair), wantrust (mistrust), and wanspeed (misfortune). The only word in which wan- has is wanton, wherein ton is truly the past participle of a  verb.

with
With- is a prefix that means against or away, as the preposition with originally denoted opposition (the preposition for association and instrumentality was mid, as in midwife). Thus, withhold roughly means hold away and thus refuse to give away, and withstand means stand against.

y
Y- was a prefix that showed completion or association. Thus, in the form of ge-, it was very productive in Old English and because of its use to show completion, it was often brooked for past participles; and German still have this as ge-. Sometime in the Middle English tide, however, it became y- and step by step was dropped; by Shakespeare's time, it had become an archaism, and Edmund Spenser, one well-known writer of his time, it often by putting it before past participles, e.g., ythundered, yclad.

The only remnant of its with past participles is yclept (e.g., I am yclept Alfred, that is, I am called Alfred). Yclept is the past participle of the verb clepe, which means to call. Moreover, ge- took on a few other forms, and they are hidden in such words as aware, handiwork, and enough.

and
In Old English, the present participle ending was -ende, and if this form had lived on regularly, it would have simply become -end (which would match and German -end). The ending for the verbal noun was instead -ing. For instance, swimmend would be the present participle of swim, and swimming the verbal noun.


 * 1) There are fish swimmend in the water.
 * 2) The knight's earnest  shall be fulfilled.

In other words, originally, -end had an adjectival, and -ing a nominal note.

Whatever the reason might be, this ending was replaced at some point by -ing in the Middle English tide, but the Northern dialectal variant, -and (which variant was likely influenced by the Old Norse present participle), lasted longer; Elizabethan poets and playwrights such as Edmund Spenser and Ben Jonson sometimes used -and whenever they wanted to sound rustic or archaic, e.g., glitterand, stinkand.

Also, in the Middle English tide, because of confusion or conflation with the French present participle ending -ant, the -and form was found as an alteration of a few French words with that suffix, e.g., rampand instead of rampant.

en (plural noun)
-en was an old noun ending. In Old English, it was brooked much oftener, as it is the plural nominative form brooked in the weak declension, e.g., nama - naman (name), tunge - tungan (tongue). In Middle English, the ending still remained, but its use became more due to dialectal preferences rather than any cleaving to the old paradigm. In the Southern dialects, -en was the main plural ending, but eventually, -s won out as the standard plural ending. Now, there are only three words with this plural ending:


 * 1) oxen - the only true.
 * 2) children - the old plural of child was once childer, but when -er was no longer seen as a plural ending, the -en ending was added to it so as to make it plural.
 * 3) brethren - the plural of brother had sundry forms in Middle English. One form was brether, which was a result of umlaut (compare German Brüder), though such a formation, oddly enough, had not appeared in Old English. Soon, the standard plurals became brothers and brethren, but nowadays, the latter is brooked only figuratively.

In archaic speech, there were a few other nouns that had this ending, whether or not the ending were truly from the Old English plural nominative form. A few examples are:


 * 1) kine - plural of cow. The Old English form was cȳ, and kine was formed from the umlaut plural along with the plural ending, so like children, the word is a double plural.
 * 2) eyne - plural of eye. The Old English form was ēagan, so eyne is the older form.
 * 3) hosen - plural of hose. The Old English form was hosan, so hosen is the older form.
 * 4) housen - plural of house. The Old English form was hūs (in other words, the singular and the plural had the same form in the nominative), so houses and housen are both innovations.
 * 5) shoon - plural of shoe. The Old English form was scōs, so shoes is truly the older form.

en (feminine)
-en was the inlandish equivalent of ess. It is now found only in vixen, the feminine of fox. The change in vowel naturally happened from the formation of the feminine in the Proto-Germanic tide, and the voicing of the first consonant was a characteristic of one of the Middle English dialects. The change in vowel can be found in its German equivalent, Füchsin, the feminine of Fuchs. One archaic word with this ending is minchen (the feminine of monk and thus meaning nun).

The following words can now be overset thus:
 * 1) goddess - gidden (from Old English gyden; the vowel change was due to the addition of the ending in Proto-Germanic, as seen in the related adjective giddy, and the regularized version would be godden)
 * 2) lioness - lionen
 * 3) shepherdess - shepherden
 * 4) heroine - healthen (health is an archaic word meaning hero and is cognate to German Held, feminine Heldin).

There happened to be another feminine suffix: -ster, which was essentially the feminine equivalent of -er. See -ster above for more.

en (diminutive)
-en is a diminutive suffix in two English words: chicken and maiden. However, it is no longer recognized as a diminutive.

The word kitten appears to be a diminutive from French and not a native diminutive of cat.

en (infinitive ending)
-en was an old ending brooked for the infinitive, e.g., the old infinitive of love was loven. This ending can be found in and German.

In Old English, the infinitive ending was -an, and its dative form was enne, e.g., cuman, tō cumenne (come). In Middle English, both endings had been reduced into one -en. Sometimes, the n was dropped, which yielded e as the infinitive ending. Therefore, when final e was dropped, the infinitive ending was lost wholly, and the preposition to became the lone sign of the infinitive and became meaningless in most of its. Edmund Spenser, a poet of Shakespeare's day, often brooked the old infinitive ending to sound archaic or rustic.

en (plural verb)
-en was an old verb ending to show that the subject was plural in the present or the past tense, e.g., we loven, ye showen, they camen. This ending is brooked likewise in and German (though in the latter, there is a special ending for the second-person plural).

In Old English, it was only in the plural past, but in Middle English, it had become brooked for the present as well. The ending sometimes lost the n, which yielded an ending identical to that for the first-person singular. Therefore, when final e was dropped, the ending was lost wholly. In Shakespeare's day, the well-known poet Edmund Spenser often brooked en in his works so as to sound archaic or rustic.

end
An agent suffix -end that came from the original present participle ending (see -and above). For instance, Old English berend meant bearer, and helpend meant helper. This suffix was very productive in Old English, but it was replaced with -er later on. Now, it is only found in friend (from the present participle of free, which had the meaning of love) and fiend (from the present participle of the Old English verb fēogan, which meant hate).

er (frequentative)
-er is a suffix found in a few frequentative verbs, e.g., wander (from wend), flicker, quaver, swelter.

er (genitive)
-er is an obsolete genitive plural ending that came from a genitive plural ending in Old English. The only relics of this ending are in Childermas (wherein childer is the obsolete genitive plural of child; Childermas is thus literally children's mass) and in aller, which was the genitive plural of all and was also a prefix brooked before superlatives (see aller- above).

est
-est is the second-person singular verb ending. For instance, the second-person singular present indicative of go is goest. Interestingly, the t in the ending came from thou; by the Old English tide, the pronoun had been so often put after the verb that part of it naturally became a part of the verb ending.

In Old English, strong verbs did not brook this ending for the past tense, e.g., singest, sunge, sincest, sunke. Weak verbs, on the other hand, had -est, e.g., fremedest, lufodest. In Middle English, this generally the same way, but by the  tide, by strong fellowship of thou with -est, the ending became attached to the past tense of any verb, whether it were strong or weak, e.g., camest, knewest, lovedst.

The way to the verb if the subject is second-person singular is onefold:


 * For the present tense, attach -est to the infinitive, e.g., love, lovest, call, callest.
 * For the past tense,
 * If the verb is regular, then attach -edst to the infinitive, e.g., quell, quelledst, open, openedst.
 * If the verb is irregular, and the past tense is not the same as the infinitive in form, then attach -est to the usual past tense, e.g., see, sawest, go, wentest.
 * If the verb is irregular, but the past tense is the same as the infinitive in form, then attach -edst to the infinitive, e.g., hit, hittedst, let, lettedst.

Note that the -edst ending is separately, so showedst is two syllables long. The e in -edst is outspoken, so showedst should not be outspoken as show-dst.

In Shakespeare's time, it was to shorten -est, e.g., kill'st, go'st, knew'st. Verbs like cost and burst (whose stems end with the consonant cluster st) did not show regular shortening, however, since it would be rather hard to outspeak them, so one either said costest and burstest or used the alleviated forms cost and burst, a phenomenon that can be found even in Old English, e.g., þū birst from berstan. And of course, verbs ending with a sibilant must brook -est, e.g., kissest, teachest.

There are special verbs:


 * be - art (present indicative), wast (past indicative), wert (past subjunctive)
 * do - dost (said as dust; note that the vowel is the same as the one in does and doth), didst (shortening of diddest)
 * have - hast (shortening of havest), hadst (shortening of haddest)
 * can (auxiliary) - canst, couldst (or couldest)
 * may - mayst (or mayest), mightst (or mightest)
 * will (auxiliary) - wilt, wouldst (or wouldest)
 * shall - shalt, shouldst (or shouldest)
 * must - must (older: mustest)
 * ought - oughtst (or oughtest)
 * dare (auxiliary) - darest (either one or two syllables), durst (older: durstest)
 * wit (as in, to wit) - wotst (or wottest, older: wost), wist (older: wistest)

Note that wert is sometimes brooked as a past indicative, but generally, it is subjunctive; this is the distinction that the King James Bible follows, e.g., Thou wast perfect in thy ways from the day that thou wast created, till iniquity was found in thee. (Ezekiel 28:15), I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot: I would thou wert cold or hot. (Revelation 3:15)

et
-et is an obsolete ending brooked for making nouns from verbs, adjectives, and other nouns. This suffix was in a few Old English words, but the only is thicket, which is gotten from the adjective thick.

Note that this has nothing to do with the -et ending as in hatchet, as the ending has diminutive meaning and comes from French.

eth
-eth is an archaic verb ending for the third-person singular present indicative. It works exactly like -s, e.g., he hath, he doth, he goeth, he loveth, he showeth.

In Old English, it often had the same form as the plural ending, wherefore the simplifying of inflections in the transition to Middle English left the two endings to be the same. In the Southern dialect, which was among the more traditional Middle English dialects, -eth was brooked as both the third-person singular present and the plural present of all persons.

By the tide, in the standard dialect (which was mainly based upon the East Midlands dialect), -eth became brooked for the third-person singular only, as seen in the King James Bible, one of the most well known Early New English works.

head
A suffix that is apparently akin to the suffix -hood. Words with this suffix included lustihead and sainthead. It appears that originally, this suffix was used with adjectives, as opposed to -hood, which was mainly used with nouns instead. However, the distinction between the two was later blurred. This variant and its many words became obsolete, having been replaced with -hood, and the only are godhead (easily replaced with godhood) and maidenhead (now an archaic variant of maidenhood).

ing
-ing is an ending that shows that something belongs to a certain group or has a certain quality. For, a sweeting (meaning sweet apple) has the quality of sweetness, and a gelding obviously has the quality of being gelded.

It can also be found in patronymic words. For, an atheling is the son of an , and the surname Browning originally referred to a man who is the son of a man named Brown.

le
Note that for this suffix, it is spelled -el after ch, soft g, n, r, sh, th, and v. After m, it becomes -ble, e.g., nimble.

le (frequentative)
-le is found in a few frequentative verbs, e.g., nestle, twinkle, wrestle, bobble, scuttle.

le (adjective)
-le is an adjectival suffix added to verbs to make words that show tendency and inclination, e.g., nimble (from the archaic verb nim, meaning take), brittle (from the archaic verb brit, meaning break).

le (instrument)
-le is added to verbs to make words with an agentive or instrumental meaning, e.g., bridle, handle, thimble, shovel, beadle. In some words like riddle (as in puzzle) and burial, they originally had the unrelated ending -els; at some point later, the s was confused for a plural ending, and so the ending was changed into -le.

le (diminutive)
-le is found in a few diminutive words formed from nouns, e.g., bramble, runnel. Note that there are a few diminutives that have this ending, but come from Old French instead, e.g., bottle, chapel.

ledge
-ledge is an ending used to make verbs from nouns and adjectives. Etymologically, it is related to the -lock suffix, which was used to make nouns showing deed, practice, or state. The only word that shows this suffix now is acknowledge (a combination of two obsolete verbs, acknow and knowledge, which seems etymologically distinct from the noun knowledge).

ling(s)
-ling is an obsolete adverbial ending that showed manner, direction, or position. A variant of -ling is -lings, wherein the s is simply the genitive ending in its adverbial use. The ending lives on in a few words, albeit hidden:


 * 1) In headlong and sidelong, the -ling has been changed into long by association with other words ending with long.
 * 2) The verbs grovel, sidle, and darkle come from misunderstanding the -ling forms as present participles ending in -ing. That is, speakers thought that groveling was the present participle of the verb grovel, when there was no such verb back then.

In a few British dialects, there are still a few words with the true ending, e.g., arseling, flatling.

lock
-lock was an old ending that denoted deed, practice, or state. The only word with this ending is wedlock, which refers to the state of being married and thus means matrimony.

Note that in the word knowledge, the second element seems to be an alteration of a dialectal form of the original suffix in Old English; that the ending came to have the same form as the related verbal suffix -ledge (see above) appears to be coincidental. If the word had developed with the regular form, it might have become knowlock instead.

meal
-meal is an archaic adverbial ending that showed a fixed measure or portion at a time. It came from the dative plural of the Old English word mǣl (meal), and over time, its dative plural suffix dropped, which yielded meal. It is the same word as meal referring to food or the time when it is eaten; the word once betokened time and measure in general, and so the word meal later became specialized to refer to the time when food is eaten. The ending is thus a remnant of its old meaning. The only current word that has this ending is piecemeal, which means one piece at a time.

Incidentally, the ending meal has nothing to do with meal as in oatmeal, wherein meal refers to the edible part of any grain or pulse ground to powder.

more
A suffix brooked for the comparatives of certain adjectives and adverbs that are already comparative, whence double comparatives are formed, e.g., innermore. This is no longer productive and lives only in the word furthermore.

most
A suffix brooked for the superlatives of certain adjectives and adverbs. It comes from the Old English suffix -mest, which is truly a combination of two superlative suffixes, one of which is the usual -est. The suffix became confused with the usual word most, however. It lives on in a few words such as foremost and innermost, but it is no longer productive.

ock
An old diminutive ending. Its diminutive ending lives on only in hillock, and though the ending is present in a few other words, the diminutive force is now gone, e.g., buttock, bullock, bollocks (which refers to testicles and is no longer felt to be a diminutive of ball, though one can see how the connection was made in the first place).

red
-red is an archaic ending that showed condition or state, much like -dom, -hood, and -ship. It comes from Old English rǣden, which meant condition, state. In New English, there are only two words with this ending: hatred and kindred.

ric
-ric is an archaic ending that showed jurisdiction. For, a bishopric is the jurisdiction of a bishop. -ric comes from rich, an obsolete noun meaning realm (and it is also linked to the adjective rich; both words in the end come from Celtic); it is akin to German Reich and rijk. The other Germanic tongues brook this word far more than English, which leans toward brooking -dom instead, e.g., Königreich - kingdom.

The only two words that still brook this ending are bishopric and archbishopric.

se
-se is a suffix used to make verbs from nouns and adjectives. For, cleanse is formed from clean. Cleanse is the only word showing this suffix, but it is hidden in a few other words: bless is formed from blood (since the original meaning was mark with blood as part of a special ceremony), and whinge was a dialectal form of the derivation from whine (the Old English word was hwinsian, which would have regularly become whinse).

th
An abstract nominal suffix that shows action or condition, e.g., warmth betokens the state or sensation of being warm. This suffix is brooked with verbs and adjectives. In some words, the suffix has become t instead, e.g., height betokens the condition of being high. Though no longer productive, it is found in many common words, e.g., wealth, length, breadth, truth, strength, health.